1. Late Malla Nepal and the Eve of Unification (1700–1825 B.S. / 1643–1768 CE)
Political Background
At the beginning of 1700 B.S. (1643 CE), the Kathmandu Valley—then usually called Nepal Mandala—was divided among three powerful Malla kingdoms: Kathmandu, Patan (Lalitpur), and Bhaktapur. These kingdoms were not large in territory, but they were extremely rich in culture, art, and religious life. Outside the valley, dozens of smaller hill principalities, such as Gorkha, Lamjung, Kaski, Palpa, and Makwanpur, controlled the surrounding hills. In the Terai, there were small chiefdoms and zamindari territories.The Malla kings competed with one another in building temples, palaces, water spouts, and public courtyards. They also patronized poets, musicians, dancers, and painters. By 1700 B.S., the Malla civilization had reached a high point. The valley was famous for its brick architecture, carved wooden windows, metalwork, and Sanskrit and Newari literature.
Culture and Religion under the Mallas
The Malla period was a golden age of Newar culture. The Newars, the indigenous people of the Kathmandu Valley, developed a complex urban civilization based on agriculture, trade, and crafts. They were organized into caste and occupational groups, and their guthi system managed temples, festivals, and charitable works.
Religious life was deeply syncretic. Hinduism and Buddhism existed side by side, and many Newars practiced both. The Kumari, a young girl worshipped as a living goddess, was and remains a powerful symbol of this blend. Important temples and stupas such as Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, Changunarayan, and Taleju were expanded and renovated. The Malla kings, though Hindu, also respected Buddhist deities and supported Tibetan and Newar Buddhist communities.
Major festivals celebrated in the Malla era included:
Indra Jatra – honoring Indra, the god of rain, with the display of the Kumari.
Bisket Jatra – the New Year festival of Bhaktapur.
Rato Machhindranath Jatra – a long procession of the rain god, especially important in Patan.
Gai Jatra – the festival of cows, during which families remembered the dead.
Dashain and Tihar – the great autumn festivals of the goddess Durga and Laxmi.
Dance, music, and drama were highly developed. The Navadurga dance of Bhaktapur, the Lakhe dance, and classical Newari music all flourished. Sanskrit plays and religious texts were copied and preserved in palace libraries.
2. The Rise of Gorkha and Unification (1825–1903 B.S. / 1768–1846 CE)
Prithvi Narayan Shah and the Conquest of the Valley
In 1779 B.S. (1723 CE), Prithvi Narayan Shah was born in Gorkha. He became king of the small hill state of Gorkha in 1799 B.S. (1742 CE). From the beginning, he aimed to conquer the rich Kathmandu Valley. He first took Nuwakot in 1801 B.S. (1744 CE), cutting the valley’s trade route to Tibet. He then imposed a long economic blockade on the valley.
His first attempt to take Kirtipur failed in 1814 B.S. (1757 CE). But Prithvi Narayan Shah did not give up. He improved his army, acquired modern weapons, and waited for the right moment.
In 1825 B.S. (1768 CE), during the Indra Jatra festival, his soldiers entered Kathmandu and captured the palace. Soon after, Patan fell. In 1826 B.S. (1769 CE), Bhaktapur was taken after a hard battle. The last Malla kings were removed, and Prithvi Narayan Shah moved his capital to Kathmandu. This event is traditionally seen as the birth of modern Nepal.
The Nature of the New State
Prithvi Narayan Shah called Nepal “a yam between two boulders,” meaning China in the north and British India in the south. He advised his successors to keep friendly relations with both powers but never to trust them completely.The Shah kings presented themselves as Hindu rulers and protectors of the cow and Brahmanical tradition. The Gorkhali language, later called Nepali, gradually became the language of administration and the army. However, Newar culture and festivals continued in the valley. The new state was not a centralized nation in the modern sense, but a collection of conquered territories with different customs, languages, and religions.
Expansion and Conflict with Tibet and China
After Prithvi Narayan Shah’s death in 1831 B.S. (1775 CE), his successors expanded the kingdom. Under regents such as Bahadur Shah, Nepal conquered the western hill regions of Kumaon and Garhwal. In the east, Nepal extended influence over Sikkim and parts of the Terai.Nepal’s expansion into Tibet led to two wars. In 1848 B.S. (1792 CE), a Chinese army marched into Nepal and forced the Gurkhas to sign a treaty. Nepal had to pay tribute to the Chinese emperor every five years. This practice continued until the early twentieth century.During this period, cultural exchange with Tibet remained strong. Newar artisans and Buddhist priests traveled to Lhasa, and Tibetan pilgrims visited Swayambhunath and Boudhanath.
3. The Rana Period (1903–2007 B.S. / 1846–1951 CE)
The Kot Massacre and the Beginning of Rana Rule
In 1903 B.S. (1846 CE), Jang Bahadur Kunwar, later known as Jang Bahadur Rana, seized power in the Kot massacre. On the night of the massacre, many nobles and military leaders were killed in the palace courtyard. Jang Bahadur became prime minister and commander-in-chief with almost absolute power.He started the Rana system, in which the office of prime minister became hereditary within the Rana family. The Shah kings remained on the throne but had little real authority. The Ranas ruled Nepal as their private estate for more than one hundred years.
The Rana State and Society
The Ranas kept Nepal largely isolated from the outside world. They feared that foreign influence would weaken their power. Nepal had little modern industry, few roads, and almost no public education. The Ranas and their relatives controlled most of the land and wealth.In 1911 B.S. (1854 CE), Jang Bahadur issued the Muluki Ain, a national legal code. It formalized the caste hierarchy and prescribed different punishments for different castes. The code strengthened orthodox Hindu social order and made cow slaughter a serious crime. It also recognized many ethnic groups within a broad Hindu framework.
Religion and Culture under the Ranas
The Rana period saw the continuation of Hindu kingship as the central ideology. Dashain became the great national festival, during which thousands of animals were sacrificed to the goddess Durga. The Ranas presented themselves as devout Hindus and patrons of temples.At the same time, the Ranas built neoclassical palaces in Kathmandu, such as Singha Durbar, which was one of the largest palaces in Asia. They introduced some European styles of dress, furniture, and architecture. But these changes affected only the elite.Buddhism continued among the Newar, Tamang, Sherpa, and Tibetan communities. Monasteries, stupas, and festivals such as Buddha Jayanti and Lhosar remained important. In the high Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism flourished, and monasteries like Tengboche and Thyangboche were centers of learning.
Gurkha Recruitment and Foreign Relations
The Rana period saw the continuation of Hindu kingship as the central ideology. Dashain became the great national festival, during which thousands of animals were sacrificed to the goddess Durga. The Ranas presented themselves as devout Hindus and patrons of temples.At the same time, the Ranas built neoclassical palaces in Kathmandu, such as Singha Durbar, which was one of the largest palaces in Asia. They introduced some European styles of dress, furniture, and architecture. But these changes affected only the elite.Buddhism continued among the Newar, Tamang, Sherpa, and Tibetan communities. Monasteries, stupas, and festivals such as Buddha Jayanti and Lhosar remained important. In the high Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism flourished, and monasteries like Tengboche and Thyangboche were centers of learning.
Opposition and the End of Rana Rule
In the 1990s B.S. (1930s CE), small groups began to demand political reform. The Nepal Praja Parishad, formed in 1993 B.S. (1936 CE), was crushed by the Rana government, and several of its leaders were executed. These martyrs became symbols of resistance.
In 2007 B.S. (1950–51 CE), King Tribhuvan fled to India, and an armed movement against the Ranas began. With Indian mediation, the Rana regime ended in 2007 B.S. (1951 CE). King Tribhuvan returned as a constitutional monarch, and Nepal began its first experiment with democracy.
4. Democracy, Panchayat, and Conflict (2007–2065 B.S. / 1951–2008 CE)
The First Democratic Period (2007–2017 B.S. / 1951–1960 CE)
After the end of Rana rule, Nepal opened to the world. Political parties, especially the Nepali Congress, pushed for parliamentary democracy. King Mahendra, who succeeded his father Tribhuvan in 2012 B.S. (1955 CE), was suspicious of political parties.
The first general election was held in 2015 B.S. (1959 CE). The Nepali Congress won a majority, and B.P. Koirala became prime minister. His government began land reform and tried to modernize administration. However, King Mahendra dismissed the government in 2017 B.S. (1960 CE) and banned political parties.
The Panchayat System (2017–2046 B.S. / 1960–1990 CE)
King Mahendra introduced the Panchayat system, a partyless political system based on village and district councils. Real power remained with the king. Political parties were illegal, and dissent was suppressed.
The Panchayat system promoted a specific cultural ideology: one language, one dress, one nation. Nepali language was promoted as the national language, and Hindu culture was emphasized. The state remained officially Hindu, and the king was presented as an incarnation of Vishnu. This policy marginalized many ethnic and linguistic groups, but it also created a sense of national unity in some areas.
In 2036 B.S. (1979 CE), student protests forced King Birendra to hold a referendum. Voters could choose between a reformed Panchayat and a multiparty system. The Panchayat side won narrowly, but the result was disputed. Birendra introduced some reforms, including direct elections to the national legislature.
The 2046 People’s Movement and Constitutional Monarchy
In 2046 B.S. (1990 CE), a mass movement led by the Nepali Congress and communist parties forced King Birendra to accept a constitutional monarchy. A new constitution was promulgated in 2047 B.S. (1990 CE). It guaranteed fundamental rights and established a multiparty parliamentary system. The king remained head of state but lost most executive powers.
The 1990s saw greater freedom of expression, the growth of media, and the revival of ethnic and linguistic movements. Many ethnic groups began to assert their distinct identities, demanding recognition of their languages and cultures.
The Maoist Conflict (2052–2063 B.S. / 1996–2006 CE)
In 2052 B.S. (1996 CE), the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) launched a “People’s War” from the rural hills. The Maoists demanded a republic, a constituent assembly, and radical social change. The conflict spread quickly through poor and remote districts.
The war was brutal. Both the state security forces and the Maoists committed human rights violations. Villagers were caught in the middle. More than sixteen thousand people were killed, and hundreds of thousands were displaced.
In 2058 B.S. (2001 CE), the royal palace massacre took place. King Birendra and most of the royal family were killed. The official explanation was that Crown Prince Dipendra shot his family and then himself, but many Nepalis did not believe this story. Birendra’s brother Gyanendra became king.
King Gyanendra took direct power in 2062 B.S. (2005 CE). This move united the political parties against him. In 2063 B.S. (2006 CE), a second People’s Movement forced him to restore parliament. The restored parliament declared Nepal a secular state, removing the official status of Hinduism. It also stripped the king of most powers.
A Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed between the government and the Maoists in 2063 B.S. (2006 CE). The Maoists joined the political mainstream. Elections for a Constituent Assembly were held in 2064 B.S. (2008 CE).
The End of the Monarchy (2065 B.S. / 2008 CE)
On 28 May 2065 B.S. (28 May 2008 CE), the newly elected Constituent Assembly voted overwhelmingly to abolish the monarchy. Nepal was declared a federal democratic republic. The Shah dynasty, which had ruled since Prithvi Narayan Shah, came to an end. King Gyanendra left the palace, and Nepal entered a new era.
5. Culture, Religion, and Society after 2065 B.S. (Since 2008 CE)
Religious Pluralism
After the declaration of secularism in 2063 B.S. (2007 CE) and the end of the monarchy in 2065 B.S. (2008 CE), Nepal officially became a secular state. In practice, however, religion remains central to daily life.
The majority of Nepalis are Hindu, but Buddhism, Islam, Kirat, Christianity, and Bon are also practiced. Many Nepalis continue to blend Hindu and Buddhist practices, especially among the Newar, Tamang, and Sherpa communities.
Major religious festivals continue to be celebrated with great enthusiasm:
Dashain – the longest and most important Hindu festival, celebrating the victory of the goddess Durga.
Tihar – the festival of lights, honoring crows, dogs, cows, and the goddess Laxmi.
Chhath – a major festival in the Terai, dedicated to the sun god.
Buddha Jayanti – the birth anniversary of the Buddha, especially important in Lumbini and the Kathmandu Valley.
Lhosar – the New Year festival of Tamang, Sherpa, and Gurung communities.
Eid and Christmas are also observed by Muslim and Christian minorities.
Heritage and the Earthquake of 2072 B.S.
In 2072 B.S. (2015 CE), a devastating earthquake struck Nepal. Nearly nine thousand people died, and many historic monuments were destroyed or damaged. Important sites such as Basantapur Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, and many village temples suffered heavy damage.
The earthquake was a cultural catastrophe as well as a human one. However, it also revealed the resilience of Nepali craftspeople. Traditional woodcarvers, masons, and metalworkers were called upon to restore temples and palaces. Reconstruction has been slow, but many monuments have been rebuilt using traditional techniques and materials. The earthquake also renewed interest in traditional building knowledge and heritage conservation.
Language, Literature, and Media
Since the end of Rana rule, Nepali literature has grown rapidly. Poets, novelists, and essayists have written in Nepali, Newari, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tamang, Limbu, and other languages. The promotion of ethnic languages has become an important cultural movement, though Nepali remains the main language of communication.
Radio, television, and the internet have transformed cultural life. Folk music, modern pop, rap, and rock all have large audiences. Traditional music—such as Newari bhajan, Tamang selo, Gandharva folk songs, and Deuda from the far west—remains popular, especially in rural areas.
Cinema has also developed. Nepali films, though often low-budget, are popular at home and among the diaspora. Many films draw on folk stories, social issues, and family dramas.
Social and Cultural Change
After 2065 B.S., Nepal has experienced rapid urbanization. Kathmandu and other cities have grown quickly, and modern apartment buildings have replaced many traditional houses. Young people increasingly travel abroad for work and study, especially to the Gulf countries, Malaysia, India, and beyond. Remittances from abroad have become vital to the economy and have changed family life and consumption patterns.
Education has expanded, especially for girls. Traditional caste barriers have weakened in some areas, though they remain strong in others. Inter-caste marriage, once strictly forbidden, has become more accepted in urban areas. Women have entered professions in greater numbers, and discussions about gender equality have become common.
Cuisine and Daily Life
Nepali food culture has also changed. The traditional meal of dal-bhat-tarkari (lentil soup, rice, and vegetables) remains the staple. Momo, originally from Tibetan culture, has become the most popular snack across the country. Newari dishes such as bara, yomari, chhoyla, and samay baji are widely enjoyed. In the Terai, roti, tarua, and fish dishes are common. Global fast food, coffee shops, and fusion restaurants have spread in cities.
Diaspora and Cultural Exchange
Millions of Nepalis live and work abroad. They have created a large Nepali diaspora in India, the Middle East, Europe, North America, Australia, and East Asia. The diaspora maintains strong ties with Nepal through remittances, visits, and cultural organizations. Festivals are celebrated abroad, and Nepali temples and community centers have been built in many countries. This has led to greater global awareness of Nepali culture, food, music, and religion.
Conclusion
From 1700 B.S. (1643 CE) to the present, Nepal has undergone enormous changes. It began as a collection of small kingdoms, was unified under the Shah dynasty, endured Rana autocracy, experimented with democracy, suffered a long civil conflict, and finally became a republic. Throughout all these changes, religion and culture have remained central to Nepali identity. The temples of the Kathmandu Valley, the festivals of Dashain and Tihar, the traditions of the Newars, the Buddhist monasteries of the high Himalayas, and the daily practice of dal-bhat continue to shape the lives of Nepalis. Even after 2065 B.S., despite political transformations, Nepal’s rich cultural and religious heritage remains one of its most enduring strengths.